Discussion
The objective of this study was to use a psychological approach to observe data collected from a university badminton class comparing novices and expert participants. The data was categorised into themes and analysed, where thematic findings found components of the SE theory and inattentional (attentional) focus throughout the data. Components of the SE theory; performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, imaginal experiences, physiological states and emotional states were observed.
Performance accomplishment was a regular theme throughout the novice data, where it was observed that the more accomplished a participant felt the higher their level of perceived ability would be, whether that was through external validation, viewing the scoreboard, or encouragement from a teammate. This followed Musculus et al (2018)’s study which found through practice and repetition, soccer players could gain confidence in their ability and perform at a higher level. By achieving success in their own performance, athletes can increase their confidence. As outlined in Gao (2008), verbal persuasion was seen in both self-talk and teammate encouragement where positive talk was seen to build confidence and improve SE. Vicarious experiences were seen more in the expert data through a pattern of teammates learning from observing one another. Additionally, as seen in Kwon’s (2022) study, vicarious experiences motivated the participants to want to achieve better results and aim higher. There was little data on imaginal experiences which was assumed to be down to the participants struggling to correctly administer the TA technique, which will be further discussed in limitations. The most data on physiological states were collected from the novice condition. This may have been due to the two-person team taking the game less seriously and therefore having the time to comment on how their body was feeling. It was observed that before a game began, a big point, or end of a match, both novices felt an increase in heart rate, shaking, sweating and discomfort. This was calmed through deep breathing exercises and through reassuring one another. This tied into emotional regulation, keeping calm and alert throughout. It was observed in the expert data that when a participant was angry/aggressive towards the game, their level of performance would decrease.
The second concept of the study was attentional (inattentional) focus, which was observed through several themes; attention through tactics/game play and focus on self, whilst inattentional focus was observed through external factors, distractions, and focus on surroundings. As seen in Lawrence’s (2011) study, inattentional focus was seen when an athlete failed to perceive important information in their surroundings due to their attention being focused on another task or stimulus. It was noted in all conditions that the I-Vue glasses caused distraction, participants having to push them onto their nose and squint for better visibility. As multiple games were also playing at the one time, sound distraction was a huge theme throughout. Wulf (2002) found that inattentional focus can also occur when an athlete is distracted by external factors, such as crowd noise or the actions of their opponents. As seen within our data, external distraction can result in an athlete missing important cues and making mistakes that can negatively impact their performance. Participants that were able to focus on their game play, physiological states and teammates were able to block out external factors and preserve in difficult situations.
The data collected brought various findings to light, though these cannot be addressed without examining the limitations of this study. Initially, many participants highlighted difficulty implementing the TA technique. This technique was new to all participants, many expressing they feel uncomfortable openly sharing and dictating their thoughts. This lack of mastery of the TA technique limited the amount of rich in-depth data sourced. In the future, structured interviews immediately after the Badminton sessions could be beneficial to those who struggled in the TA method. Another limitation that must be addressed is that the participants in this study all had extremely similar badminton abilities, therefore the split between novice and expert may not have been entirely accurate. The novice group won more matches than the expert group, though it cannot be identified this is a result of inaccurate grouping. Another limitation of this research is related to the materials used to collect data. The I-Vue glasses reduced visibility, resulting in participants not playing to the best of their abilities. This resulted in a lot of data related to external distractions rather than data related to match play. The final limitation of this study was the dropout of participants. The novice participants had a 100% attendance rate, meaning they produced the most data, whereas two of the three expert participants participated in limited sessions of the data collection phase. This made it hard for these participants to generate themes and results from their data.
Performance accomplishment was a regular theme throughout the novice data, where it was observed that the more accomplished a participant felt the higher their level of perceived ability would be, whether that was through external validation, viewing the scoreboard, or encouragement from a teammate. This followed Musculus et al (2018)’s study which found through practice and repetition, soccer players could gain confidence in their ability and perform at a higher level. By achieving success in their own performance, athletes can increase their confidence. As outlined in Gao (2008), verbal persuasion was seen in both self-talk and teammate encouragement where positive talk was seen to build confidence and improve SE. Vicarious experiences were seen more in the expert data through a pattern of teammates learning from observing one another. Additionally, as seen in Kwon’s (2022) study, vicarious experiences motivated the participants to want to achieve better results and aim higher. There was little data on imaginal experiences which was assumed to be down to the participants struggling to correctly administer the TA technique, which will be further discussed in limitations. The most data on physiological states were collected from the novice condition. This may have been due to the two-person team taking the game less seriously and therefore having the time to comment on how their body was feeling. It was observed that before a game began, a big point, or end of a match, both novices felt an increase in heart rate, shaking, sweating and discomfort. This was calmed through deep breathing exercises and through reassuring one another. This tied into emotional regulation, keeping calm and alert throughout. It was observed in the expert data that when a participant was angry/aggressive towards the game, their level of performance would decrease.
The second concept of the study was attentional (inattentional) focus, which was observed through several themes; attention through tactics/game play and focus on self, whilst inattentional focus was observed through external factors, distractions, and focus on surroundings. As seen in Lawrence’s (2011) study, inattentional focus was seen when an athlete failed to perceive important information in their surroundings due to their attention being focused on another task or stimulus. It was noted in all conditions that the I-Vue glasses caused distraction, participants having to push them onto their nose and squint for better visibility. As multiple games were also playing at the one time, sound distraction was a huge theme throughout. Wulf (2002) found that inattentional focus can also occur when an athlete is distracted by external factors, such as crowd noise or the actions of their opponents. As seen within our data, external distraction can result in an athlete missing important cues and making mistakes that can negatively impact their performance. Participants that were able to focus on their game play, physiological states and teammates were able to block out external factors and preserve in difficult situations.
The data collected brought various findings to light, though these cannot be addressed without examining the limitations of this study. Initially, many participants highlighted difficulty implementing the TA technique. This technique was new to all participants, many expressing they feel uncomfortable openly sharing and dictating their thoughts. This lack of mastery of the TA technique limited the amount of rich in-depth data sourced. In the future, structured interviews immediately after the Badminton sessions could be beneficial to those who struggled in the TA method. Another limitation that must be addressed is that the participants in this study all had extremely similar badminton abilities, therefore the split between novice and expert may not have been entirely accurate. The novice group won more matches than the expert group, though it cannot be identified this is a result of inaccurate grouping. Another limitation of this research is related to the materials used to collect data. The I-Vue glasses reduced visibility, resulting in participants not playing to the best of their abilities. This resulted in a lot of data related to external distractions rather than data related to match play. The final limitation of this study was the dropout of participants. The novice participants had a 100% attendance rate, meaning they produced the most data, whereas two of the three expert participants participated in limited sessions of the data collection phase. This made it hard for these participants to generate themes and results from their data.
